Philosophy Saul Kripke Naming And Necessity Philosophy Essay

Philosophy Saul Kripke Naming And Necessity Philosophy Essay He is best known for his attack on the descriptivist (Fregean, Russellian) theory of reference with respect to proper names, according to which a name refers to an object by virtue of the names being associated with a description that the object in turn satisfies. He gave several examples purporting to render descriptivism implausible. The key features of Kripkes contribution to the philosophy of language are (1) his account of names as rigid designators and not clusters of definite descriptions; and (2) his view that there are necessary a posteriori and contingent a priori truths. Both these claims are contentious and continue to be debated vigorously. In Naming and Necessity Saul Kripke argues against type-type-identity theory by the use of an argument from philosophy of language. Kripke wants to demonstrate that if one believes in the identity of mental- and brain states, one needs to accept the theorys full consequence, namely that there cannot be brain states which are not mental states or vice versa. To defend identity theory one would thus be in a need to prove not only empirical (e.g. by scientific research), but analytical a priori, that neither brain states without mental states, nor mental states without brain states could exist. This is quite hard, if not impossible, to do since on the one hand mental states are intuitively independent from the physical domain (Cartesian intuition) and on the other hand zombies are conceivable. Kripke introduces two types of designators (namings) of entities, namely rigid designators and non-rigid (flaccid) designators. Rigid designators refer to the same entity in every possible world, if the designator has any reference at all. For example, the rigid designator Anthony Flemming refers to the same entity in all conceivable worlds. Flaccid designators may refer to different entities in different possible worlds. For example, the author of this essay is Anthony Flemming only in this very world. Flaccid designators refer to entities only by use of contingent properties (e.g. X is the author of this essay). Identities between two rigid designators that name the same entity are necessary. The proposition that they are identical is trivially a priori true (you do not need any experience to prove it). If not both designators that are claimed to be identical are rigid, this identity is contingent, if it is true. The identity might be true in this world, but this has to be proven empirically since one could conceive a non-rigid designator referring to some other object. Kripkes strategy is to show, that identity theorists could not argue mind-brain-state identity to be a contingent identity. He demonstrates that both, the term mental state and the term brain state that are claimed to refer to one and the same entity are rigid designators. As an example Kripke uses the proposition pain is c-fiber stimulation. The term pain is a rigid designator because you could not imagine it to refer to something else than the sensation pain in another world. According to Kripke one could transfer this example to every other mental-state and the brain state, which is said to be identical with it. Identity theorists have asserted, the mental states are brain states identity was contingent just like the heat is molecular movement identity is contingent. Kripke replies, even the latter identity was not a contingent one at all, but necessary. It only seems to be contingent, for one confuses the physical property heat with the sensation of feeling heat. But the name heat could either mean the one or the other thing, since the physical property heat is not identical with the sensation heat (There is heat, namely molecular movement, when there is nobody to perceive the sensation caused by it). If the designator heat names the physical property, it is a rigid designator and the identity is necessary. If the term heat names the feeling there is no identity at all. Eventually Kripke reasons from this, that type-type-identity has to be necessary, if true, which connotes that every mental state is identical with a specific brain state in every conceivable world. But mental states without brain states and brain states, that are not mental states, either the conception or identity theory has to be false. Kripkes argument seems to be some sleight of hand at first glance, because it is that astoundingly convincing and still it seems at least imaginable that mental processes are really brain processes and nothing over and above in this world. This might just be, because he does not have any idea how to solve the mind-body problem himself. Moreover Kripkes argument is a very strong one indeed. It is very difficult to defeat because its core structure is logically sound: If it is: a) true that the terms for both mental- and brain-states are rigid designators, and b) they are identical, then c) the identity has to be necessary. The only way to attack the argument is to challenge the framework of semantics it makes use of. The excerpts contain less information on this topic. Important questions would be for example: Which contingent identities could we know a priori, if any? Is a possible world really identical with a conceivable world and what does this denote to rigid designators? It is obvious that this is too far-reaching to be examined in this paper. Kripke is a peculiar man with a sharp intellect. He talks fast and he thinks perhaps even faster. One is still stricken by the fact that he does not seem vitally concerned about applying philosophy to social issues. His ideals do not seem to be those of the visionary public intellectual, like Sartre, Russell, Chomsky or Cornel West. Kripke is one of Americas most respected philosophers, still he is not significant in public debates. For many he is a living legend.

Essay examples --

Personality is seen to be the characteristic thought, emotional and behavioural patterns of an individual combined with the psychological mechanisms which cause these patterns. Personality can be looked at under two sub-headings. These are nomothetic and idiographic. Nomothetic approaches deal with general rules and everyone is described on the same set of traits whereas idiographic approaches deal with unique aspects of personality and suggest that people form different personalities based on their experiences. There are four approaches to the study of human personality: trait, psychodynamic, humanistic-existential and social cognitive. The trait theory is a nomothetic approach while the other three theories are ideographic approaches. Each different theory has its own way of measuring personality. As with other areas of psychology, it’s difficult to be certain about which approach measures personality the most accurately because the mind cannot be examined easily. Personality is subjective. To one person someone may seem simply introverted but to another they may seem psychotic. Different characteristics also overlap to create one overall person and inner desires are hidden in the subconscious. This is what makes studying personality so difficult. Although there are four approaches this essay will briefly look at only two of these approaches to show why so many different theories are required through the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. One of the approaches looked at will be the nomothetic trait theory approach and the other will be the ideographical psychodynamic approach. Trait approach Allport and Odbert (1936) found that there were 17,953 different words in the English dictionary that could be ... ...e way humans interact with other people or with the world, it more focuses on what people don’t do rather than what they actually do. Conclusion Both the trait theory approach and the psychodynamic approach take completely different stances on what personality is. Although they are not mentioned, the other approaches do this as well. The trait theory attempts to categorise people’s personality and work out correlations between each of the different traits whereas the psychodynamic approach attempts to focus more on the unconscious part of the mind and what the individual secretly desires rather than what they actually do. It is because of these differences that there needs to be more than one approach. Personality is too complex to only have one way of looking at it, there needs to be different theories to highlight different parts of the mind and how it works. Essay examples -- Personality is seen to be the characteristic thought, emotional and behavioural patterns of an individual combined with the psychological mechanisms which cause these patterns. Personality can be looked at under two sub-headings. These are nomothetic and idiographic. Nomothetic approaches deal with general rules and everyone is described on the same set of traits whereas idiographic approaches deal with unique aspects of personality and suggest that people form different personalities based on their experiences. There are four approaches to the study of human personality: trait, psychodynamic, humanistic-existential and social cognitive. The trait theory is a nomothetic approach while the other three theories are ideographic approaches. Each different theory has its own way of measuring personality. As with other areas of psychology, it’s difficult to be certain about which approach measures personality the most accurately because the mind cannot be examined easily. Personality is subjective. To one person someone may seem simply introverted but to another they may seem psychotic. Different characteristics also overlap to create one overall person and inner desires are hidden in the subconscious. This is what makes studying personality so difficult. Although there are four approaches this essay will briefly look at only two of these approaches to show why so many different theories are required through the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. One of the approaches looked at will be the nomothetic trait theory approach and the other will be the ideographical psychodynamic approach. Trait approach Allport and Odbert (1936) found that there were 17,953 different words in the English dictionary that could be ... ...e way humans interact with other people or with the world, it more focuses on what people don’t do rather than what they actually do. Conclusion Both the trait theory approach and the psychodynamic approach take completely different stances on what personality is. Although they are not mentioned, the other approaches do this as well. The trait theory attempts to categorise people’s personality and work out correlations between each of the different traits whereas the psychodynamic approach attempts to focus more on the unconscious part of the mind and what the individual secretly desires rather than what they actually do. It is because of these differences that there needs to be more than one approach. Personality is too complex to only have one way of looking at it, there needs to be different theories to highlight different parts of the mind and how it works.

Aria and Mother Tongue Essay

In the story â€Å"Aria† by Richard Rodriguez and â€Å"Mother Tongue† by Amy Tan both authors write about their experiences and struggles as a bilingual child. In â€Å"Aria† and â€Å"Mother Tongue† they describe their private language as an expression of intimacy with their loved ones. Growing up at one point they felt embarrassed and ashamed of their parents inability to speak English fluently. Tan writes â€Å"My mother’s â€Å"limited† English limited my perception of her. I was ashamed of her English,† (Tan 543). They were their parents’ connection to the outside world and often had to be the voice of their family. Rodriguez and Tan both believe that there’s more options and advantages once they became Americanized. â€Å"The social and political advantages I enjoy as a man result from the day that I came to believe that my name, indeed, is Rich-heard Road-ree-guess.† (Rodriguez 518). Rodriguez and Tan emphasize the importance of language and the power it holds either intimately or publicly.The assumption you can make about the authors personas is that they have a strong bond and love for their intimate language. Despite the similarities there are also many differences. Rodriguez comes from a Latin background in which both parents speak Spanish and Tan comes from a Chinese background. Tan grew up in American Chinese culture and embraces societies language (English) while being able to preserve her intimate language. Unfortunately, Rodriguez faced many obstacles due to the language barrier and was not able to preserve his intimate language. The authors purposes for the essay’s are to show the importance and influence that language has on culture.

A Comparison of the Themes of Blade Runner and Brave New...

A Comparison of the Themes of Blade Runner and Brave New World ‘Humanity likes to think of itself as more sophisticated than the wild yet it cannot really escape its need for the natural world’ Despite different contexts both Aldous Huxley within his book Brave New World and Ridley Scott in the film Blade Runner explore the idea that humans feel themselves more sophisticated than the natural world, yet are able to completely sever relations between humanity and the nature. Through various techniques both texts warn their varied audiences of the negative ramifications that will come from such disdainful, careless opinions and actions. All aspects of the ‘New State’ within Aldous†¦show more content†¦Huxley again uses irony in emotive language such as â€Å"corpse coloured rubber† to describe the hatchery. While providing a description of scientific surroundings which directly represent the fact that humanity feels it is more sophisticated than the natural world, Huxley also indicates that the natural rhythms of the world can not be avoided. This is achieved through his reference to death in the word â€Å"corpse† a natural and inevitable aspect of life. Aldous Huxley immediately establishes the ideal of his book that humans think they are more sophisticated than the natural world. The concept of conditioning the masses to â€Å"hate the country but love country sports† is a perfect example of this. Using this contrast the composer indicates his concern that the leaders of the New Sate are manipulating the natural world with the intelligent and sophisticated scientific advances for materialistic purposes. Facts and statistics are continually used within the text. Lines such as â€Å"In extraordinary cases one ovary can produce us with 15,000 individuals†. This was intended by the composer to make his novel and its characters more sophisticated. This use ofShow MoreRelatedMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 PagesDESIGN DIRECTOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR George Hoffman Lise Johnson Carissa Doshi Dorothy Sinclair Matt Winslow Amy Scholz Carly DeCandia Alana Filipovich Jeof Vita Arthur Medina Allison Morris This book was set in 10/12 New Caledonia by Aptara ®, Inc. and printed and bound by Courier/Westford. The cover was printed by Courier/Westford. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright  © 2009, 2006, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995, 1992, 1989, 1986, 1981, 1976 John Wiley SonsRead MoreInnovators Dna84615 Words   |  339 PagesMarriott School, Brigham Young University. He is widely published in strategy and business journals and was the fourth most cited management scholar from 1996–2006. is a professor of leadership at INSEAD. He consults to organizations around the world on innovation, globalization, and transformation and has published extensively in leading academic and business journals. is the Robert and Jane Cizik Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School and the architect of and